Keywords
Microbiome
gingivitis
periodontitis
gingivitis
periodontitis
How to Cite
CHAKAR, C., MENASSA, G., & KHAYAT, R. (2021). Periodontal Microbiome Part I: A Literature Review. International Arab Journal of Dentistry (IAJD), 12(1), 40-47. https://doi.org/10.70174/iajd.v12i1.609
Abstract
Periodontal disease is one of the most chronic infectious diseases, it is initiated by a reversible inflammatory condition called gingivitis, if untreated, it progresses to an irreversible condition called periodontitis, if not resolved, it leads to tooth loss. Periodontitis is a multifactorial disease, one of these factors is the periodontal microbiome. Consequently, the microbiome is altered according to the host state i.e., health, gingivitis, periodontitis. The microbiome in health is comprised of a variety of microorganisms called health-associated species. They consist of gram-positive cocci and rod with gram-negative species. In this state, the microbiome participates in various physiological functions. While in gingivitis, the microbiome shifts in its composition and can now initiate an inflammatory condition. While in periodontitis, the microbiome is changed to a state where new microorganisms emerge which initiate a periodontal tissue destruction phenomenon. These microorganisms are referred to disease-associated species. Environmental factors are present in which they alter the microbiome composition. Smoking and diabetes were one of the strong extrinsic factors that negatively shape the microbiome into a more aggressive form. Individuals with poor glycemic control or consume tobacco products are more prone to periodontal diseases because their microbiome is rich in bacterial complexes which negatively affects the periodontium. The effect of antibiotic consumption on the microbiome was more or less advantageous, it was observed that not all antibiotics affect the microbiome composition.
References
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4. Perez‑Chaparro, P. J. et al. Newly identified pathogens associated with periodontitis: a systematic review. J. Dent. Res. 93, 846–858 (2014).
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16. Listgarten MA. Structure of the microbial flora associated with periodontal health and disease in man. A light and electron microscopic study. J Periodontol 1976;47(1):1‐18.
17. Moore WE, Moore LV. The bacteria of periodontal diseases. Periodontol 2000. 1994;5:66‐77.
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19. Diaz PI, Chalmers NI, Rickard AH, et al. Molecular characterization of subject‐specific oral microflora during initial colonization of enamel. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2006;72(4):2837‐2848.
20. Curtis MA, Diaz PI, Van Dyke TE. The role of the microbiota in periodontal disease. Periodontol 2000. 2020;83:14–25.
21. Schincaglia GP, Hong BY, Rosania A, et al. Clinical, immune, and microbiome traits of gingivitis and peri‐implant mucositis. J Dent Res. 2017;96(1):47‐55.
22. Socransky SS, Haffajee AD, Cugini MA, Smith C, Kent RL Jr. Microbial complexes in subgingival plaque. J Clin Periodontol. 1998;25(2):134‐144
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24. Hajishengallis G. The inflammophilic character of the periodontitis- associated microbiota. Mol Oral Microbiol. 2014;29(6):248-257.
25. Darveau RP, Belton CM, Reife RA, Lamont RJ. Local chemokine paralysis, a novel pathogenic mechanism for Porphyromonas gingivalis. Infect Immun. 1998;66(4):1660‐1665.
26. Darveau RP. Periodontitis: a polymicrobial disruption of host homeostasis. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2010;8(7):481-490.
27. Marsh PD. Microbial ecology of dental plaque and its significance in health and disease. Adv Dent Res. 1994;8(2):263‐271.
28. Abusleme L, Dupuy AK, Dutzan N, et al. The subgingival microbiome in health and periodontitis and its relationship with community biomass and inflammation. ISME J. 2013;7(5):1016‐1025.
29. Diaz PI, Hoare A, Hong BY. Subgingival microbiome shifts and community dynamics in periodontal diseases. J Calif Dent Assoc. 2016;44(7):421‐435.
30. Dabdoub SM, Ganesan SM, Kumar PS. Comparative metagenomics reveals taxonomically idiosyncratic yet functionally congruent communities in periodontitis. Sci Rep. 2016;6:38993.
31. Duran‐Pinedo AE, Chen T, Teles R, et al. Community‐wide transcriptome of the oral microbiome in subjects with and without periodontitis. ISME J. 2014;8(8):1659‐1672
32. Jorth P, Turner KH, Gumus P, Nizam N, Buduneli N, Whiteley M. Metatranscriptomics of the human oral microbiome during health and disease. MBio. 2014;5(2):e01012‐e01014.
33. Yost S, Duran‐Pinedo AE, Teles R, Krishnan K, Frias‐Lopez J. Functional signatures of oral dysbiosis during periodontitis progression revealed by microbial metatranscriptome analysis. Genome Med. 2015;7(1):27.
34. Hatipoğlu H, Yamalik N, Berberoğlu A, Eratalay K. Impact of the distinct sampling area on volumetric features of gingival crevicular fluid. J Periodontol. 2007;78(4):705‐715.
35. Ozkavaf A, Aras H, Huri CB, et al. Relationship between the quantity of gingival crevicular fluid and clinical periodontal status. J Oral Sci. 2000;42(4):231‐238.
36. Loesche WJ. Oxygen sensitivity of various anaerobic bacteria. Appl Microbiol. 1969;18(5):723‐727.
37. Buduneli N. Environmental factors and periodontal microbiome. Periodontol 2000. 2020;00:1–12.
38. Pindborg JJ. Tobacco and gingivitis: statistical examination of the significance of tobacco in the development of ulceromembranous gingivitis and in the formation of calculus. J Dent Res. 1947;26(3):261-264.
39. Zeller I, Hutcherson JA, Lamont RJ, et al. Altered antigenic profiling and infectivity of Porphyromonas gingivalis in smokers and non-smokers with periodontitis. J Periodontol. 2014;85(6):837-844.
40. Zambon JJ, Grossi SG, Machtei EE, Ho AW, Dunford R, Genco RJ. Cigarette smoking increases the risk for subgingival infection with periodontal pathogens. J Periodontol 1996: 67: 1050–1054.
41. Haffajee AD, Socransky SS. Relationship of cigarette smoking to the subgingival microbiota. J Clin Periodontol 2001: 28: 377–388.
42. Kumar PS, Matthews CR, Joshi V, de Jager M, Aspiras M. Tobacco smoking affects bacterial acquisition and colonization in oral biofilms. Infect Immun 2011: 79: 4730– 4738.
43. Joshi V, Matthews C, Aspiras M, de Jager M, Ward M, Kumar P. Smoking decreases structural and functional resilience in the subgingival ecosystem. J Clin Periodontol. 2014;41(11):1037-1047.
44. Kim J, Amar S. Periodontal disease and systemic conditions: a bidirectional relationship. Odontology. 2006 September; 94(1): 10–21.
45. Saeb ATM, Al-Rubeaan KA, Aldosary K, et al. Relative reduction of biological and phylogenetic diversity of the oral microbiota of diabetes and pre-diabetes patients. Microb Pathog. 2019;128:215-229.
46. Ganesan SM, Joshi V, Fellows M, et al. A tale of two risks: smoking, diabetes and the subgingival microbiome. ISME J. 2017;11(9):2075-2089.
47. Longo PL, Dabdoub S, Kumar P, et al. Glycaemic status affects the subgingival microbiome of diabetic patients. J Clin Periodontol. 2018;45(8):932-940.
48. Ramich, T.; Asendorf, A.; Nickles, K.; Oremek, G.M.; Schubert, R.; Nibali, L.; Wohlfeil, M.; Eickholz, P. Inflammatory serum markers up to 5 years after comprehensive periodontal therapy of aggressive and chronic periodontitis. Clin. Oral Investig. 2018, 22, 3079–3089.
49. Isola G. Antibiotics and Antimicrobials for Treatment of the Oral Microbiota: Myths and Facts in Research and Clinical Practice. Antibiotics 2020, 9, 95.
50. Dilber E, Hagenfeld D, Ehmke B, Mariano Faggion C Jr. A systematic review on bacterial community changes after periodontal therapy with and without systemic antibiotics: An analysis with a wider lens. J Periodont Res. 2020;00:1–16
51. Hagenfeld D, Koch R, JuÈnemann S, Prior K, Harks I, Eickholz P. Do we treat our patients or rather periodontal microbes with adjunctive antibiotics in periodontal therapy? A 16S rDNA microbial community analysis. PLoS ONE 2018, 13 (4): e0195534.
52. Morales A, Gandolfo A, Bravo J, Carvajal P, Silva N, Godoy C, Garcia J, Hoare A, Diaz P, Gamonal J. Microbiological and clinical effects of probiotics and antibiotics on nonsurgical treatment of chronic periodontitis: a randomized placebo controlled trial with 9-month follow-up. J Appl Oral Sci. 2018;26:e20170075.
2. Hernández, M., Dutzan, N., Garcı́a-Sesnich, J., Abusleme, L., Dezerega, A., Silva, N. Host-pathogen interactions in progressive chronic periodontitis. J. Dent Res. 2001; 90, 1164–1170.
3. Lourenco, T. G. et al. Microbial signature profiles of periodontally healthy and diseased patients. J. Clin. Periodontol. 41, 1027–1036 (2014).
4. Perez‑Chaparro, P. J. et al. Newly identified pathogens associated with periodontitis: a systematic review. J. Dent. Res. 93, 846–858 (2014).
5. Hajishengallis G, Liang S, Payne MA, et al. Low‐abundance biofilm species orchestrates inflammatory periodontal disease through the commensal microbiota and complement. Cell Host Microbe. 2011;10:497‐506.
6. Curtis MA, Diaz PI, Van Dyke TE. The role of the microbiota in periodontal disease. Periodontol 2000. 2020;83:14–25.
7. Bartold PM, Van Dyke TE. Periodontitis: a host-mediated disruption of microbial homeostasis. Unlearning learned concepts. Periodontol 2000 2013;62:203-217.
8. Griffen, A. L., Beall, C. J., Campbell, J. H., Firestone, N. D., Kumar, P. S., Yang, Z. K.. Distinct and complex bacterial profiles in human periodontitis and health revealed by 16S pyrosequencing. ISME J. 2012; 6, 1176-1185.
9. Hajishengallis G, Darveau RP, Curtis MA. The keystone-pathogen hypothesis. Nat Rev Microbiol 2012;10:717-725
10. LaMonte MJ, Genco RJ, Zheng W, et al. Substantial differences in the subgingival microbiome measured by 16S metagenomics according to periodontitis status in older women. Dent J (Basel) 2018;6.
11. Dewhirst FE, Chen T, Izard J, et al. The human oral microbiome. J Bacteriol 2010;192:5002-5017.
12. Joseph S, Curtis A. Microbial transitions from health to disease. Periodontology 2000. 2020;00:1–9.
13. de Coo A, Quintela I, Blanco J, Diz P, Carracedo Á. Assessment of genotyping tools applied in genetic susceptibility studies of periodontal disease: a systematic review. Arch Oral Biol. 2018;92:38-50.
14. Wade WG. Resilience of the oral microbiome. Periodontol 2000. 2020;00:1–10
15. Najmanova, L., Sabova, L., Lenartova, M., Janatova, T., Mysak, J., Vetrovsky, T. R/G value – a numeric index of periodontal health. Front. Cell. Inf. Microbiol 2021; 11, 602643.
16. Listgarten MA. Structure of the microbial flora associated with periodontal health and disease in man. A light and electron microscopic study. J Periodontol 1976;47(1):1‐18.
17. Moore WE, Moore LV. The bacteria of periodontal diseases. Periodontol 2000. 1994;5:66‐77.
18. Paster BJ, Boches SK, Galvin JL, et al. Bacterial diversity in human subgingival plaque. J Bacteriol. 2001;183(12):3770‐3783.
19. Diaz PI, Chalmers NI, Rickard AH, et al. Molecular characterization of subject‐specific oral microflora during initial colonization of enamel. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2006;72(4):2837‐2848.
20. Curtis MA, Diaz PI, Van Dyke TE. The role of the microbiota in periodontal disease. Periodontol 2000. 2020;83:14–25.
21. Schincaglia GP, Hong BY, Rosania A, et al. Clinical, immune, and microbiome traits of gingivitis and peri‐implant mucositis. J Dent Res. 2017;96(1):47‐55.
22. Socransky SS, Haffajee AD, Cugini MA, Smith C, Kent RL Jr. Microbial complexes in subgingival plaque. J Clin Periodontol. 1998;25(2):134‐144
23. Hajishengallis G, Darveau RP, Curtis MA. The keystone-pathogen hypothesis. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2012;10(10):717-725.
24. Hajishengallis G. The inflammophilic character of the periodontitis- associated microbiota. Mol Oral Microbiol. 2014;29(6):248-257.
25. Darveau RP, Belton CM, Reife RA, Lamont RJ. Local chemokine paralysis, a novel pathogenic mechanism for Porphyromonas gingivalis. Infect Immun. 1998;66(4):1660‐1665.
26. Darveau RP. Periodontitis: a polymicrobial disruption of host homeostasis. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2010;8(7):481-490.
27. Marsh PD. Microbial ecology of dental plaque and its significance in health and disease. Adv Dent Res. 1994;8(2):263‐271.
28. Abusleme L, Dupuy AK, Dutzan N, et al. The subgingival microbiome in health and periodontitis and its relationship with community biomass and inflammation. ISME J. 2013;7(5):1016‐1025.
29. Diaz PI, Hoare A, Hong BY. Subgingival microbiome shifts and community dynamics in periodontal diseases. J Calif Dent Assoc. 2016;44(7):421‐435.
30. Dabdoub SM, Ganesan SM, Kumar PS. Comparative metagenomics reveals taxonomically idiosyncratic yet functionally congruent communities in periodontitis. Sci Rep. 2016;6:38993.
31. Duran‐Pinedo AE, Chen T, Teles R, et al. Community‐wide transcriptome of the oral microbiome in subjects with and without periodontitis. ISME J. 2014;8(8):1659‐1672
32. Jorth P, Turner KH, Gumus P, Nizam N, Buduneli N, Whiteley M. Metatranscriptomics of the human oral microbiome during health and disease. MBio. 2014;5(2):e01012‐e01014.
33. Yost S, Duran‐Pinedo AE, Teles R, Krishnan K, Frias‐Lopez J. Functional signatures of oral dysbiosis during periodontitis progression revealed by microbial metatranscriptome analysis. Genome Med. 2015;7(1):27.
34. Hatipoğlu H, Yamalik N, Berberoğlu A, Eratalay K. Impact of the distinct sampling area on volumetric features of gingival crevicular fluid. J Periodontol. 2007;78(4):705‐715.
35. Ozkavaf A, Aras H, Huri CB, et al. Relationship between the quantity of gingival crevicular fluid and clinical periodontal status. J Oral Sci. 2000;42(4):231‐238.
36. Loesche WJ. Oxygen sensitivity of various anaerobic bacteria. Appl Microbiol. 1969;18(5):723‐727.
37. Buduneli N. Environmental factors and periodontal microbiome. Periodontol 2000. 2020;00:1–12.
38. Pindborg JJ. Tobacco and gingivitis: statistical examination of the significance of tobacco in the development of ulceromembranous gingivitis and in the formation of calculus. J Dent Res. 1947;26(3):261-264.
39. Zeller I, Hutcherson JA, Lamont RJ, et al. Altered antigenic profiling and infectivity of Porphyromonas gingivalis in smokers and non-smokers with periodontitis. J Periodontol. 2014;85(6):837-844.
40. Zambon JJ, Grossi SG, Machtei EE, Ho AW, Dunford R, Genco RJ. Cigarette smoking increases the risk for subgingival infection with periodontal pathogens. J Periodontol 1996: 67: 1050–1054.
41. Haffajee AD, Socransky SS. Relationship of cigarette smoking to the subgingival microbiota. J Clin Periodontol 2001: 28: 377–388.
42. Kumar PS, Matthews CR, Joshi V, de Jager M, Aspiras M. Tobacco smoking affects bacterial acquisition and colonization in oral biofilms. Infect Immun 2011: 79: 4730– 4738.
43. Joshi V, Matthews C, Aspiras M, de Jager M, Ward M, Kumar P. Smoking decreases structural and functional resilience in the subgingival ecosystem. J Clin Periodontol. 2014;41(11):1037-1047.
44. Kim J, Amar S. Periodontal disease and systemic conditions: a bidirectional relationship. Odontology. 2006 September; 94(1): 10–21.
45. Saeb ATM, Al-Rubeaan KA, Aldosary K, et al. Relative reduction of biological and phylogenetic diversity of the oral microbiota of diabetes and pre-diabetes patients. Microb Pathog. 2019;128:215-229.
46. Ganesan SM, Joshi V, Fellows M, et al. A tale of two risks: smoking, diabetes and the subgingival microbiome. ISME J. 2017;11(9):2075-2089.
47. Longo PL, Dabdoub S, Kumar P, et al. Glycaemic status affects the subgingival microbiome of diabetic patients. J Clin Periodontol. 2018;45(8):932-940.
48. Ramich, T.; Asendorf, A.; Nickles, K.; Oremek, G.M.; Schubert, R.; Nibali, L.; Wohlfeil, M.; Eickholz, P. Inflammatory serum markers up to 5 years after comprehensive periodontal therapy of aggressive and chronic periodontitis. Clin. Oral Investig. 2018, 22, 3079–3089.
49. Isola G. Antibiotics and Antimicrobials for Treatment of the Oral Microbiota: Myths and Facts in Research and Clinical Practice. Antibiotics 2020, 9, 95.
50. Dilber E, Hagenfeld D, Ehmke B, Mariano Faggion C Jr. A systematic review on bacterial community changes after periodontal therapy with and without systemic antibiotics: An analysis with a wider lens. J Periodont Res. 2020;00:1–16
51. Hagenfeld D, Koch R, JuÈnemann S, Prior K, Harks I, Eickholz P. Do we treat our patients or rather periodontal microbes with adjunctive antibiotics in periodontal therapy? A 16S rDNA microbial community analysis. PLoS ONE 2018, 13 (4): e0195534.
52. Morales A, Gandolfo A, Bravo J, Carvajal P, Silva N, Godoy C, Garcia J, Hoare A, Diaz P, Gamonal J. Microbiological and clinical effects of probiotics and antibiotics on nonsurgical treatment of chronic periodontitis: a randomized placebo controlled trial with 9-month follow-up. J Appl Oral Sci. 2018;26:e20170075.